Emperor Ashoka reigned from c. 268 to 232 BCE and he stands as one of the most transformative and influential rulers in the history of the Indian subcontinent. His empire extended across vast and diverse regions, encompassing much of the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka ascended to the throne of the Magadha Empire after intense rivalry and elimination of competitors. Following the brutal Kalinga War, Ashoka formally embraced the teachings of the Buddha and integrated principles of non-violence, compassion, and righteousness into his administration.
One of the most enduring legacies of Ashoka’s rule is his innovative use of rock and pillar edicts as a medium to communicate his ideas and policies to his subjects. Among these edicts, the Bairat Inscription addressed to the Buddhist Sangha underscores Ashoka’s deep devotion to Buddhism and his efforts to maintain the unity and cohesion of the Buddhist community. This inscription, along with others, provides invaluable insights into Ashoka’s faith and his vision for a just and harmonious society.
In this article, we examine Ashoka’s transformative journey exploring the factors that shaped his conversion and the profound impact it had on his rule and institutionalisation of Buddhism.
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| On Bijak-ki-Pahadi, Bairat, Rajasthan |
Background
The Mauryan Dynasty, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, marked the beginning of one of the most powerful empires in ancient India. Following Chandragupta, his son Bindusara ascended the throne and further expanded the empire’s boundaries. During Bindusara’s reign, Ashoka, his younger son, was appointed as the governor of the Avanti province.
As the governor of Avanti, Ashoka met Devi, the daughter of a Shakyan merchant named Deva Shreshthi of Vidisha(in Madhya Pradesh). Devi, also known as Mahadevi or Shakyani Devi, became Ashoka’s wife and the mother of his two children, Mahindra and Sanghamitra. As Devi hailed from the Shakyan clan (same as that of Shakyamuni Gautam Buddha), she likely influenced Ashoka by Buddhist teachings, which would later play a pivotal role in shaping his Buddhist ideas. Notably, Devi never sought the status of a royal queen or demanded princely positions for her children, reflecting her modest and principled nature akin to Buddhist thoughts.
Following King Bindusara’s death, Ashoka rushed to Pataliputra from Ujjain and, after a fierce power struggle, secured the throne by eliminating his rivals. As a king yet to be crowned he continued to seek advice from Buddhist monks. However, his expansionist ambitions overshadowed his inclination toward Buddhism at this stage. Ashoka consolidated his position and led a brutal conquest of Kalinga in c. 262/261 BCE which became a turning point in Ashoka’s life.
The immense human suffering and devastation caused by the war deeply affected him, as reflected in his own words in Rock Edict XIII:
“Beloved-of-the-Gods felt remorse, for, when an independent country is conquered, the slaughter, death, and deportation of the people is extremely grievous to the Beloved-of-the-Gods and weighs heavily on his mind.”
This profound remorse led Ashoka to renounce aggressive military conquests and embrace the path of Dhamma (righteousness). Already Influenced by his association with Devi, and his ongoing dialogues with Buddhist monks, Ashoka became a devoted follower of Buddhism. He began to focus intently on Buddha, Dhamma (Buddhist teachings), and Sangha (Buddhist monastic order).
To disseminate his vision, Ashoka employed a unique method of communication: inscribing royal proclamations on rocks and pillars throughout his kingdom. These edicts, particularly the Bairat Inscription, provide invaluable insights into his religious views. The Bairat Inscription, addressed to the Buddhist Sangha, underscores Ashoka’s efforts to unify and bring cohesion in the Buddhist community. Through these inscriptions, Ashoka patiently and skilfully sought to promote Dhamma-based policies, emphasizing non-violence, compassion, and social welfare.
Ashoka was determined to spread Buddhism and preserve the integrity of Buddhist Sangha. He used the edicts stressing this objective giving a message in unequivocal terms. For example, in the Sarnath pillar inscription Ashoka mentions:
“No one shall cause division in the order of monks”.
Similarly in Koshambi Pillar Edict II Ashoka instructs the local Mahamatras with the following decree:
'Whether a monk or nun, anyone who causes a division in Sangha shall be compelled to wear white clothes and reside apart from the monastic community.’
A similar inscription has been addressed to monks in one of the Bairat edicts which shall be discussed below.
Location of Bairat; The Bairat Inscriptions are located in Viratnagar which is now part of the recently created district Kotputli-Behror in Rajasthan. The town lies approximately 90 km from Jaipur and 190 km from Delhi, 172 km from Mathura. In ancient times, Viratnagar served as the capital of Matsya Mahajanapada, one of the sixteen great Mahajanapadas mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya of Buddhist Tripitaka. The town is also prominently featured in the Mahabharata as the kingdom ruled by King Virat, where the Pandavas spent their thirteenth year of exile (Agyatvas) in disguise.
A video clip of 31 seconds on Bairat hill is available on the following link on YouTube;
https://youtu.be/IEqjU-p1XjQ?si=q4fcypL5BL--HHBS
Discovery of Inscriptions: In 1837 first discovery of an Ashokan inscription at Bairat was made by Captain Thomas Seymour Burt, a British military engineer. His exploratory work was later moved to the Asiatic Society of Bengal Museum in Kolkata.
In 1861 explorations were carried out by Alexander Cunningham who identified Viratnagar as a historically significant site. His research was influenced by the accounts of the Chinese Buddhist traveller Xuan Zang, who visited the site sometime in c. 634 CE. Xuan Zang mentions in his book Record of Western Countries:
‘The climate is warm and fiery; the manners of the people are resolute and fierce. They do not esteem learning and are given to honour the heretics. The king is of Vaishya caste; he is one of the brave and impetuous nature, and very war-like.’
‘There are eight Sangharama’s (monasteries or Viharas), mostly ruined, with very few priests who study Hinayana. There are ten Deva temples with about 1000 followers of different sects.’
Alexander Cunningham notes that Bairat is situated on a mound of ruins and the surrounding fields are covered with broken pottery and fragments of slag from ancient copper-works. The general aspect of the place is coppery red colour. The town seems to have been invaded between 1009 to 1022 CE and destroyed by the army of Mahmud of Ghazni.
In 1871 A. C. L. Carlleyle unearthed a second Ashokan inscription near Bairat on a big boulder. A few decades later, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni of ASI, conducted detailed studies which confirmed Bairat’s role as an important Buddhist centre during the Mauryan period. Excavations carried out on the different terraces of the hill known as Bijak-ki-Pahari yielded remains of a Mauryan circular ‘stupa-shrine’ made of brickwork alternating with the twenty-six octagonal pillars of wood, preceded by monastic remains with a double row of cells arranged around an open courtyard.
In 1962 excavation of Bairat was again done and reported in Indian Archaeology 1962-63 - A Review by ASI in New Delhi in 1965. Besides earthen pottery ware, and glazed pottery ware, an enormous quantity of iron slag was also found. The use of iron was attested from the earliest occupation onwards implying that Bairat has links with the iron age.
The Inscriptions
The Bairat Inscriptions comprise two significant edicts attributed to Emperor Ashoka (r.268-232 BCE) and provide valuable insights into Ashoka’s dedication to Buddhism and his efforts to disseminate its teachings.
1. The Kolkata-Bairat Edict or the Minor Rock Edict III:
The first inscription on the stone slab is currently housed in the Museum of Asiatic Society of Bengal in Kolkata hence the name Kolkata-Bairat Edict. This was also known as Bhabra/Bhabru Edict as at the time of discovery Captain Burt was camping in the nearby village called Bhabra/Bhabru. The location where the stone slab was found is 27.41N 76.16E.
The language used in the inscription is Prakrit in Brahmi script. The inscription was found to be weathered and damaged. After considerable efforts it was transcribed and translated by Captain Markham Kittoe with the help of Pandit Kamal Kant and published in the journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal. This translation was found to be largely incorrect and was later revised by E. Senart French Indologist and E. Hultzsch a German Indologist.
English translation of the edict by Ven. S. Dhammika in his book The Edicts of King Asoka is as under:
‘Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishing them good health and happiness, speaks thus: You know, reverend sirs, how great my faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha is. Whatever, reverend sirs, has been spoken by Lord Buddha, all that is well-spoken. I consider it proper, reverend sirs, to advise on how the good Dhamma should last long. These Dhamma texts- Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of Life, the fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa’s Questions, and the advice to Rahul, which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech - these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly listen to and remember. Likewise, the laymen and laywomen. I have had this written (so) that you may know my intentions.’
Analysis of the Inscription
The Minor Rock Edict III at Bairat is directly addressed to the monks and nuns and serves as an important historical document demonstrating Ashoka’s role as a patron and protector of Buddhism.
Devotion of Ashoka: In this inscription, Ashoka begins by saluting the Three Jewels of Buddhis: the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha. He wishes the monks good health and happiness reflecting his deep respect for the Sangha. He asserts that “whatever has been spoken by Lord Buddha, all that is well-spoken” This declaration underscores Ashoka’s role not just as a ruler but as a devoted Buddhist who sees the Sangha as a crucial institution in preserving and spreading the teachings of the Buddha.
Dhamma should last long: Ashoka’s primary concern in this edict is the sustainability of the Dhamma. He explicitly states that he considers it proper to advise on how the good Dhamma should last long. This concern aligns with his broader vision of Dhamma-vijaya (victory through righteousness), where moral and ethical values take precedence over military conquests. His commitment to institutionalizing Buddhist teachings indicates his desire to make the Dhamma a lasting moral force in his empire.
The Debate on Seven Suttas in Edict: Ashoka must have been a good learner of Buddhist teachings to make recommendations of seven suttas to be read and followed by monks, nuns and laypeople. However, there is an ongoing scholarly debate about the exact identity of the seven suttas in the scriptures vis-à-vis in the inscription. the task is challenging.
One of the difficulties in identifying the suttas may be due to ambiguity in ancient textual references. Another could be in variant interpretations of early Buddhist literature. The identification and translation of the seven suttas or texts given by D.D. Kosambi and Thanissaro Bhikkhu are generally accepted.
Selection of these Suttas in the Rock Edict by Ashoka is not casual but well thought out, says Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Readers and listeners of the edicts are first informed that the ideals of Dhamma are well-tested and timeless. Subsequently, they are asked to consider the serious ones. The public is then reminded of the need to realize the meaning and to practice them.
Given below is a brief explanation of each of the seven suttas mentioned by Ashoka in the edict along with differing views of scholars in identifying the Suttas:
I. Vinaya-Samukase
Rhys Davids - Patimokkha, Vinaya Pitaka
Oldenberg - Patimokkha, Vinaya Pitaka
Barua - Sigalovada Sutta of Digha Nikaya and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu - the Parivara VI.4, Vinaya Pitaka.
Vinaya Pitaka is part of Buddhist scripture dealing with the rules and regulations of monastic discipline. The Vinaya Samukase mentioned in the edict highlights the importance of understanding and adhering to these rules, which form the ethical backbone for monks and nuns in the Sangha. Deviations from the rules may impact the teachings of Dhamma adversely.
II. Aliyavasani
Kosambi - Ariyavamsa in Anguttara Nikaya,
Rhys Davids - Ten Ariyavasani enumerated in Digha Nikaya and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu - Ariyavamsa, AN 4.28.
This sutta in the inscription is a reference to Ariyavamsa Sutta of Anguttara Nikaya 4.28 on noble behaviour. The Sutta is primarily addressed to monks and nuns and describes the conduct and ethical practices of noble ones or the Noble Aryas. In this sutta there is mention of traditions related to finding contentment in old robe cloth, any old alms food, any old lodging, and finding pleasure in developing skilful mental qualities for the monks and nuns. By recommending this text, Ashoka promoted the adoption of higher moral conduct, reflective of the path to simplicity, contentment, and spiritual purification taught by the Buddha.
III. Anagatabhayani
Rhys Davids - Anagata Bhayani of Anguttara Nikaya and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu - Anagata Bhayani, AN 5.77-5.80.
This sutta is a discourse by the Buddha on future dangers that is, admonitions of age, famine, war, and schism. In this sutta, Buddha warns of potential crises or calamities that may befall both individuals and society and emphasizes the need for preparedness through moral behaviour and mindfulness. Otherwise, the sutta warns of corruption in both Vinaya and Dhamma: “From corrupt Dhamma comes corrupt Vinaya; from corrupt Vinaya, corrupt Dhamma.” Ashoka may have used this teaching to encourage his people to remain vigilant and morally strong in the face of future difficulties of age, natural calamities, war, and schism in Sangha.
IV. Muni Gatha
Rhys Davids - Muni Sutta of Sutta Nipata and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu - Sutta Nipata, Sn.1.12.
This sutta extols the virtues of detachment, wisdom, and living a contemplative life, free from worldly attachments. A Muni finds greater happiness and security not in relationships but in living a solitary contemplative life. Ashoka’s reference to this text likely reflects his admiration for the sage-like qualities of the Buddha and his desire for his subjects to emulate those qualities by living virtuously and wisely.
V. Moneyya-Sutta
Kosambi - Nalaka Sutta of Sutta Nipata,
Barua - Nalaka Sutta minus Prologue,
Rhys Davids - Moneyya Sutta, and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu - Moneyya Sutta of Anguttara Nikaya, AN 3.23.
This Sutta highlights the characteristics of silence of body, mind and speech. It is also associated with the Nalaka Sutta from the Sutta Nipata 22 which is closer to Ashoka’s views.
The Nalaka Sutta describes the Buddha’s instructions to Nalaka on living a simple and ascetic life, emphasizing the renunciation of worldly pleasures, simplicity of food, and chastity. The Nalaka Sutta reflects Ashoka’s moral and spiritual objectives, which were aimed at guiding both the monastic and lay communities towards a simple and virtuous life.
VI. Upatisapasine
Kosambi and Barua - Sariputta Sutta of Sutta Nipata,
Neuman - Ratha Vinita Sutta in Majjhima Nikaya and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu - Upatisa’s Questions in Mahavagga 1.23.5.
This is believed to refer to a discourse involving senior monk Sariputta (also known as Upatisa), one of the Buddha’s chief disciples. This discourse recounts questions posed by Sariputta, exploring profound aspects of the Dhamma. Ashoka’s recommendation of this text to the public, points to his desire for deeper philosophical and doctrinal understanding among his people, as Sariputta’s dialogues are highly intellectual and illuminate core Buddhist teachings.
VII. Laghulovada Sutta
Rhys Davids - Rahulovada Sutta in Majjhima Nikaya,
Senart - Ambalatthika Rahulovada Sutta in Majjhima Nikaya MN 61 and
Thanissaro Bhikkhu - Cula-Rahulovada Sutta MN 6.
The last option refers to Buddha teaching his son Rahul, who is still a novice, on the dangers of lying and stresses the importance of constant reflection on one’s motives by all practising Buddhists. Ashoka’s inclusion of this sutta in the edict, likely reflects his focus on everyday morality, encouraging both laypeople, monks and nuns to adopt the virtues of self-discipline and mindfulness.
2. The Second Bairat Inscription or The Minor Rock Edict I
The second inscription was discovered by A.C.L. Carlleyle in 1871 north of Bairat on a very big rock of Bhima Ki Pahari and is called Minor Rock Edict I. This edict reflects Ashoka’s personal commitment to the Buddhist path and his efforts to promote moral and ethical conduct among his subjects.
The location of the inscription is 27.45N 76.18E. The language used is Prakrit in Brahmi script. English translation of the above edict by Ven. S. Dhammika is as under:
‘Beloved of the gods speaks thus: It is now more than two and half years since I became a lay disciple, but until now I have not been very zealous. But now that I have visited the Sangha for more than a year, I have become more zealous. Now the people in Jambudipa who have not associated with the gods do so. This is the result of zeal and it is not just the great who can do this. Even the humble, if they are zealous, can attain heaven. And this proclamation has been made with this aim. Let both humble and great be zealous, let even those on the borders know, and let zeal last long. Then this zeal will increase, it will greatly increase up to one and half times.’
Analysis of the Minor Rock Edict I
This edict depicts the commitment of Ashoka to Buddhism, and his broader vision for better governance. The edict further reveals his conviction, his emphasis on zeal and dedication in spiritual practice, and his democratic approach to moral progress, where both the great and the humble are equally capable of attaining spiritual benefits.
His statement, “until now I have not been very zealous,” is a candid admission which highlights a pivotal shift in his personal religious life, emphasizing that after visiting the Sangha, for over a year, he has become significantly more devoted. This shows that Ashoka did not merely embrace Buddhism as a state policy but underwent a genuine personal transformation.
Ashoka and His Zeal for Religion: One of the key themes in this edict is the emphasis on zeal in religious practice. He asserts that spiritual progress is not limited to the elite thereby eliminating the caste. This idea is also in tune with the Buddhist enlightenment (nirvana) which is accessible to all those who engage in right conduct, mindfulness, and devotion.
Theme of Inclusivity: Ashoka does not restrict his proclamation for zeal to a particular class, gender or region which reflects his vision of dhamma as a universal unifying force. Ashoka’s edicts spread moral and ethical values across his vast empire. Further, he mentions that by practice the zeal “will increase, it will greatly increase up to one and half times” which points to his belief in the cumulative effect of moral effort.
The Transformation
Before Ashoka, kings governed by adhering to laws and rules outlined in Brahmanical texts, such as in the Shruti (Vedas), Smriti (Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas, etc.), and Dharmashastras (including the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft). The primary duties of these kings included securing borders, collecting taxes, maintaining law and order, and upholding the hierarchical social order of four Varnas (castes) and emphasising four Ashrams (stages of life). Justice was to be dispensed in accordance with this hierarchy, which placed Brahmins at the top, followed by Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Often, kings indulged in pastimes such as hunting, watching animal fights, participating in dice games with heavy stakes and hosting lavish gatherings.
Ashoka, however, radically departed from these traditional norms. He first underwent a profound personal transformation, which was then extended to his governance. He renounced practices like hunting and the killing of animals for food, reflecting his commitment to ahimsa. In his edicts, he avoided any mention of the Varna system, doing away with caste-based discrimination. Additionally, he broke with convention by appointing women as Dhamma Mahamatras, demonstrating a progressive approach to governance.
For these transformative policies to take root and succeed, Ashoka relied heavily on the support of Sangha, which played a crucial role in disseminating his ideas and reforms among the public. Recognising the importance of a unified Buddhist community, Ashoka sought to centralize control over the Sangha to ensure its cohesion and effectiveness. His efforts bore fruit, as Buddhism flourished during his reign, while competing religious traditions saw a decline in influence.
CONCLUSION
The Bairat inscriptions clearly reflect Ashoka’s deep and unwavering faith in Buddhism. These edicts highlight his commitment to the teachings of the Buddha and his desire to integrate these principles into governance.
Gradual Adoption of Buddhism: Ashoka’s embrace of Buddhism was not an impulsive decision but a deliberate and thoughtful process. He took time to study and understand the Dhamma before fully adopting it as his guiding philosophy.
Democratic Approach: Ashoka emphasises in the inscriptions that spiritual attainment is accessible to all, regardless of social status. Ashoka thus promotes a democratic and egalitarian view of religion, breaking away from hierarchical structures.
Advocacy for a Simple Moral Life: The edicts advocate for living a life grounded in simplicity, morality, and ethical conduct. Ashoka stresses the importance of virtues such as compassion, truthfulness, and non-violence.
Zeal in Practice: Ashoka calls for consistent and enthusiastic engagement in religious practice. This reflects his deep commitment to Buddhism and his belief in the transformative power of sustained spiritual effort. He encourages his subjects to remain diligent in their pursuit of the Dhamma.
Strengthening the Sangha: Ashoka’s direct involvement with the Buddhist Sangha and his promotion of Buddhist suttas and texts demonstrate his dedication to preserving and disseminating the Dhamma. He patronised the Third Buddhist Council. He sought to strengthen the Sangha, ensuring it remained a cohesive and influential institution capable of spreading the Buddha’s message.
Vision for the Sangha: Ashoka envisioned the Sangha as a vital force for the propagation of Buddhism. He wanted it to be unified, and actively engaged in teaching and practicing the Dhamma. His support for the Sangha reflects his desire to institutionalise so that the Buddha’s teachings last long. He deputed missionaries within and outside of the empire.
Ethical king: Through the Bairat inscriptions, Ashoka emerges not merely as a Buddhist ruler but as a philosopher and ethical king. He assumes the role of a moral and spiritual guide, steering his people toward higher ethical and spiritual living.
Transformation from Conqueror to Dhamma-Based Ruler: The Bairat inscriptions serve as a powerful testament to Ashoka’s remarkable transformation from a ruthless conqueror to a compassionate, Dhamma-based ruler. They illustrate his journey from wielding power through violence to governing with wisdom, morality, and non-violence.
The Bairat edicts highlight his role in shaping a society rooted in the principles of the Dhamma and his enduring legacy as one of history’s most influential Buddhist monarchs.
References
1. ASI, Indian Archaeology 1962-63- A Review, 1965.
2. Carlleyle, A. C. L., Report of a Tour in Eastern Rajputana in 1871-72 and 1872-73, ASI, New Delhi, 2023.
3. Chandramani Singh (ed.), ASI publication, Protected Monuments of Rajasthan (Jaipur 2002)
4. Cunningham A., Archaeological Survey of India, Four Reports Made During the years 1862-63-64-65. Vol II (reprint Varanasi 1972).
5. Cunningham A., The Ancient Geography of India, p 332, London, 2023.
6. Daya Ram Sahni, Archaeological Remains and Excavations at Bairat, Dept. of Archaeology and Historical Research, Jaipur State, 1937.
7. Hultzsch E., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Oxford Clarendon Press 1925.
8. Kosambi, D.D., The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outline, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1965.
9. Rhys Davids, T. W., Buddhist Suttas: Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 11. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1881.
10. Rhys Davids, T. W., The Itivuttaka: The Buddha’s Sayings. Pali Text Society. 1890
11. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, That the True Dhamma Might Last a Long Time, e-text on accesstoinsight.org, 1993.
12. Thapar Romila, Asoka and the Decline of Mauryas, p 238, Oxford University Press Delhi, 1963.
13. Xuan Zang, trans. by Samuel Beal, Buddhist Record of the Western World, p 179, Boston, J. R. Osgood and Company, 1885.
[ NOTE: THIS ARTICLE IS A MODIFIED/SIMPLIFIED PART OF ONGOING RESEARCH WORK ]
