Part 2 - The Western Road and River Channels
In Part 1 of our series, we explored how the Eastern Sea-Gates exported products of the Gangetic plains across the Bay of Bengal toward Southeast Asia and China.
Now, we look towards western sector. If the Eastern Sector was defined by cultural expansion and maritime pilgrim routes, the Western Sector was a lucrative financial hub connected to the Mediterranean world. Here, the raw luxury goods of the Indian interior were brought through river valleys, desert tracks, and mountain passes straight into the waiting ships of Roman, Arab, and Persian traders at Bharukachcha and Sopara ports.
Bharukachcha Port
At the centre of this western commercial hub was Bharukachcha (modern-day Bharuch, Gujarat or as foreigners called Barygaza ), situated at the mouth of the Narmada River. It was easily the most famous as well as risky port in the ancient East.
[ UTTARAPATHA ]
(Delhi / Mathura / Taxila)
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[ BAIRAT (Viratnagar) ]
(Ashokan Imperial Node)
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[ UJJAIN (Ozene) ]
(Grand Central Junction)
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┌───────────────────┴───────────────────┐
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[ NARMADA RIVER HIGHWAY ] [ OVERLAND CARAVANS ]
(Float timber, stone, grain) (Dhar, Vadnagar, Maheshwar)
│ │
└───────────────────┬───────────────────┘
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[ BARYGAZA ]
(Bharuch)
│
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[ THE ROMAN EMPIRE ]Ancient Sailors and Barygaza
Our primary information into this world comes from a 1st-century CE Greek navigational guide titled the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (written by an anonymous Alexandrian sailor):
"The entrance to this bay is difficult to make... and even when reached, the navigation is dangerous... For this reason native fishermen in the King's service are stationed at the mouth of the river in long boats called Trappaga and Cotymba, by which they meet ships and guide them up the river to Barygaza." — Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Sec. 44)
(Trappaga and Cotymba, were sturdy boats with skilled sailors and were meant for piloting and towing work.)
The tides in the Gulf of Khambhat were so violent that foreign captains couldn't navigate them safely. Local kings established the ancient world's first state-run towing service—local pilots intercepted Roman vessels at the mouth of the gulf and towed them upstream to the safety of the harbour!
River Channels
Why did so many trade routes lead to Bharuch? Because geography gave Central India three massive natural water channels: the Narmada, Tapi, and Mahi rivers.
Dragging tons of heavy timber, grain, or stone across long bumpy overland roads was slow, risky and expensive. But if you could get your goods to the riverbanks, the water did the heavy trans-shipment for you.
a. The Malwa-Maheshwar Connection
The fertile Malwa Plateau was an agricultural goldmine. High-grade wheat, cotton, and teakwood were harvested around Maheshwar (an ancient crossing on the Narmada) and floated directly downstream to the docks of Bharuch.
b. Ujjain Connection
If Bharuch was the engine, Ujjain (Ozene) was the master switchboard. It sat right at the intersection of the Uttarapatha (coming down from Mathura) and regional tracks cutting through Dhar and Vadnagar.
The Periplus highlights Ujjain thus:
"Inland from this place is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins an
The Northern Feeder & Salt Roads
While the Narmada River carried Malwa’s wealth down to Bharuch, a vast overland feeder network operated across the arid stretches of Rajasthan.
Caravans ( Sarthavaha) origination from Delhi, Mathura, and the northern Uttarapatha needed a path through the formidable Aravalli Range to reach the Gulf of Khambhat. This path was carved out by the Marwar–Mewar–Sambhar network—a series of dry-land trade veins moving essential minerals, metals, and salt across the subcontinent.
Bairat, Rajasthan - the Capital of the Matsya Kingdom
Before caravans hit the salt pans and copper mines, they passed through Bairat (ancient Viratnagar), situated northeast of modern Jaipur and about 240 km from Delhi.
Bairat was the ancient capital of the Matsya Mahajanapada, famously remembered as the sanctuary where the Pandavas spent their 13th year of exile in the Mahabharata. By the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka recognized its strategic position along the Aravalli passes and turned it into an imperial provincial node, building a circular brick and wood temple (Chaitya griha) and erecting rock edicts on the surrounding hills to broadcast royal decrees to passing merchants.
Chinese monk Xuan Zang's Observation
When the Chinese monk Xuan Zang (Hiuen Tsang) arrived at Bairat around 634 CE, he recorded it in his travelogue (Si-Yu-Ki) as Po-li-ye-to:
"The kingdom of Po-li-ye-to is about 3,000 li in circuit... It produces early wheat and other grain in abundance, and sheep and oxen are raised here. The climate is warm and the land is fertile. The people are brave and warlike, and their king is a Buddhist... There are eight monasteries, but they are mostly dilapidated, and the monks are few." — Xuanzang, Si-Yu-Ki
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| 1. Remains of a circular wood and bricks Buddhist Temple, Bairat (Virat Nagar) Rajasthan. (Photo by the author) |
Xuan Zang's account reveals two key insights:
Agricultural Hub: The region acted as a key supply hub raising grain and livestock to feed Sarthavaha (caravan) drivers moving south.
Changing Times: While trade was still humming, the decline of the Buddhist monasteries signalled a gradual shift toward Brahmanical traditions across the Aravalli trade networks.
The Salt & Metal Supply Chain
From Bairat, trade arteries cut southwest toward two of the most lucrative mineral extraction zones in ancient India:
The Khetri Copper: Mined since the Indus Valley era (Ganeshwar - Jodhpura culture belonging to Copper age. Ganeshwar is in Sikar and Jodhpura in Jodhpur ), raw copper and finished metalwork were loaded onto bullock carts which headed straight for the coastal shipyards and bronze foundries of Gujarat.
Sambhar Salt: Salt served as vital currency in the ancient world. India’s largest inland saltwater lake supplied massive caravans moving along overland routes toward Gujarat, Malwa, and Central Asia.
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| 2. An excavated site near Sambhar Lake. 200 coins from the punch marked Indo-Greek, Yaudheya, Kushana and Sassanian periods were found here. The site is described as inhabited from 3rd century BCE to 10th century CE(Photo by the author) |
Patan and Anand
All these desert routes—carrying Sambhar salt, Khetri copper, Bairat textiles, and sheep wool came down through the Patan–Anand corridor. Acting as the collector of Gujarat, this corridor gathered scattered northern caravans, guided them around the salt flats of the Rann of Kutch, and dropped them into the Gulf of Khambhat at Bharuch and Cambay.
Corridor 3: The Deccan Plateau & The Western Ghat Passes
The river corridors of Central India and the desert tracks of Rajasthan were feeding Bharuch from the north. Down south was a treasure house of cotton, iron, timber, and grain. But between this fertile plateau and the Arabian Sea ports stood an obstacle: the Western Ghats or Sahyadri Mountains. This was a continuous wall of high rocky mountains rising over 3,000 feet.
To get goods from inland cities like Paithan (Pratishthana) and Tagara (Ter) to the coastal docks, ancient traders had to navigate narrow, perilous mountain passes. Whichever dynasty controlled these passes controlled the gold of the Mediterranean world.
The Sahyadri Cave Network
| Cave Site | Location | Remarks |
| Kanheri | Borivali / Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Mumbai) | 100+ caves, water cisterns (podhis), donor inscriptions of merchants |
| Karla | Bhor Ghat Pass (Near Lonavala) | Grand Great Chaitya, mithuna couples, Greek/Yavana donor inscriptions |
| Bhaja & Bedse | Bhor Ghat Pass (Maval Valley) | Royal relief carvings, early wooden-style vaulted ribs carved in stone |
| Pitalkhora | Chandora Pass (Near Aurangabad) | Earliest Hinayana cave art, high-relief carvings of royal Yaksha guards |
| Junnar (Lenya) | Naneghat Pass (Ghatghar Plateau) | 200+ excavation cells, storage lockers, merchant guild financial records |
3. A stone vessel at Naneghat(Wiki Commons by Rashmi Parab, 2012)
The following mountain passes served as the vital feeder roads connecting the plateau to the sea:
Thal Ghat (The Northern Gate): Connecting the inland city of Nashik directly to the coast, this pass despatched timber, iron, and agricultural produce down toward northern Konkan ports and Bharuch.
Naneghat Tollbooth: Cutting through sheer rock walls, Naneghat served as the direct link between the Satavahana capital region around Junnar and the coastal port of Kalyan. The Satavahana rulers turned it into an imperial toll collection point where merchants paid transit taxes (sulka).
Bhor Ghat (The Southern Gate): Positioned further south near modern Khandala, Bhor Ghat connected the southern Deccan plateau (around modern Pune and Satara) down to the harbour of Sopara and coastal trade networks.
Sopara (Surparaka)
At the end of these mountain descents sat Sopara (ancient Surparaka, modern Nala Sopara near Mumbai). Sopara finds mention in the Mahabharata, Buddhist Jatakas, and ancient Greek texts. Sopara was both a major commercial centre and a sacred pilgrimage site. Emperor Ashoka had a set of his Rock Edicts carved right here, and the port specialized in high-value luxury items- carved ivory, sandalwood, fine textiles, and perfumes.
Cave Monasteries
The Sahyadri mountains are not just raw basalt cliffs; they host the highest concentration of ancient rock-cut architecture in the world. Along the trade passes connecting the Deccan plateau to the Konkan coast stand monumental cave complexes: Karla, Bhaja, Bedse, Kanheri, Pitalkhora, Kondane, and Junnar.
These caves not only served as places for monastic meditation, but also were strategic commercial hubs, luxury caravan serais, and financial houses.
Kanheri Caves (Sopara & Kalyan Gateway)Location: Perched in the dense forests of the Borivali hills (modern Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai), directly overlooking the ancient port estuaries of Kalyan, Sopara, and Thane.
Carvings: Boasting over 100 individual rock-cut halls, Kanheri served as an urban monastic university. Inside, you find colossal 20-foot standing Buddha statues in the entrance porches, intricate Bodhisattva reliefs, and massive multi-tiered rock-cut water cisterns (podhis).
The Inscription Record: Kanheri contains dozens of Brahmi inscriptions detailing financial trusts. One famous donor record shows a merchant family funding a permanent endowment for monks, specifying that the interest generated from the loan of gold to trade guilds(Shreni) should pay for the monks' food, robes and medicine annually.
2. Karla and Bhaja Caves (The Bhor Ghat Gateway)
Location: Flanking the high ridge of the Bhor Ghat pass near Lonavala, controlling the flow of traffic coming up from the Konkan plain toward Pune.
Karla's Great Chaitya: Karla features the largest, most magnificent rock-cut prayer hall (Chaitya) in India. Its vaulted ceiling is lined with 2,000-year-old teakwood beams that have survived intact. The entrance porch is flanked by dramatic relief carvings of Mithuna (loving couples) and majestic elephant friezes carrying the weight of the cave.
The Foreign Donor Inscriptions: Inscriptions on Karla's stone pillars reveal that foreign traders referred to in Brahmi as Yavanas (Greeks, Romans, or Hellenised Asians) personally financed individual pillars, arched windows, and water tanks.
Bhaja’s Sun Chariot: Bhaja features a world-famous relief carving depicting Surya (the Sun God) riding a chariot trampling demons, alongside Indra riding a giant elephant blending early Indian myth with Buddhist monastic art.
3. Pitalkhora Caves
Location: Carved into the rugged ravines of the Satmala range near Aurangabad, guarding the ancient Chandora pass that linked the Godavari basin to the Narmada valley.
Contents & Carvings: Pitalkhora is one of the earliest Buddhist cave sites (dating to the 2nd century BCE). The base of the main stupa hall is carved as a row of life-sized, rearing stone elephants that appear to carry the monastery on their backs.
Inscriptions: The entrance features dramatic high-relief sculptures of Yaksha guardians (Dwarpalas) with detailed royal jewellery, as well as Brahmi graffiti recording contributions made by royal perfumers (gandhikas) and goldsmiths from nearby region.
4. Pitalkhora (Petrigala) Buddhist caves with perennial stream of water. (Photo by the author)
4. Junnar & Naneghat Caves
Location: Nestled around the town of Junnar at the base of the Naneghat pass, comprising over 200 individual rock excavations spread across four hills (Manmodi, Lenyadri, Tulja, and Amba-Ambika).
The Cave Passages: Unlike single grand monuments, the Junnar caves form a sprawling logistics complex. They feature large rectangular dining halls (viharas), stone benches, and recessed storage lockers where caravan leaders could lock up high-value goods like silk, silver, and spices under monastic protection.
The Naneghat Inscription Cave: Located right at the crest of the Naneghat pass, this cave features a monumental Brahmi wall inscription carved by Satavahana Queen Nayanika. It details the Vedic sacrifices performed by the royal family, the thousands of cows and gold coins given in charity, and stands directly beside the famous stone jar where merchants dropped their transit tolls (sulka).
Why did profit-driven traders pump vast fortunes into carving these elaborate cliffside caves?
Brand Visibility & Trust: Carving your name into stone at a high-traffic mountain pass was ancient form of advertising. It signalled to fellow merchants that your trading house was wealthy, pious, and credit-worthy.
Monastic Banking: The monasteries acted as neutral financial intermediaries. Merchants deposited bullion or capital with the monks, who then loaned it out to trade guilds at regulated interest rates, generating income for the monastery while keeping caravan funds safe from road bandits.
Monsoon Sanctuary: The Western Ghats experience ferocious monsoon downpours from June to September that stopped all travel and trade. The deep basalt caves provided dry, safe, ventilated shelter for hundreds of traders, pack animals, and precious goods for months at a time.
The Western Trade Ledger
| What came in | What went out |
| Italian & Arabian Wine: Preferred by regional elites and royal courts; transported in amphorae jars. | Agate & Carnelian Beads: Sourced from the famous Ratanpur mines near Rajpipla. |
| Roman Gold & Silver Bullion: Paid in massive quantities, creating a famous trade deficit in Rome. | Muslin: High-grade silks and fine cotton fabrics highly prized in the Mediterranean sourced from Paithan & Malwa |
| Glassware & Mediterranean Coral: Highly valued decorative and status items. | Sambhar Salt & Khetri Copper: Essential mineral commodities shipped across the Arabian Sea. |
| Frankincense, Myrrh & Sweet Clover: Used for cosmetics, incense, and specialized cooking. | Sandalwood, Teak & Iron: High-grade Western Ghats timber and durable Indian iron ingots for foreign weaponry. |
Historical Nuggets:
1: The Roman Craze for Carnelian: Roman elites were obsessed with red carnelian and banded agate signet rings used for wax seals on official documents. The finest carnelian in the world came from the mines near the Narmada River. Excavations at Roman sites, from London to Pompeii, have unearthed thousands of these shiny red beads carved and polished in ancient Gujarat workshops.
2: The Ancient "Bank" of Bairat
When archaeologists excavated Bairat’s Bijak-ki-Pahari hill in 1936, they found a small clay jar containing 36 ancient silver coins. Eight were punch-marked silver coins from the Mauryan Empire, and twenty-eight were Greek coins minted by Indo-Greek kings (such as Menander I). It proved that Greek money from the far northwest was circulating directly through Rajasthan's trade stops.
3: The Giant Stone Jar of Naneghat
Standing inside the main cave at the top of Naneghat pass is a huge, ancient stone pot. Archaeologists realized this was the ancient toll collection jar! Merchants descending the pass literally dropped their tax coins into this giant stone vessel. Right beside it on the wall is a long 1st-century BCE inscription by Satavahana Queen Nayanika, listing royal achievements and tax revenues.
4: The Stupa of Sopara
In 1882, when archaeologists excavated the brick stupa at Sopara, they found an extraordinary relic caskets inside—boxes made of copper, silver, gold, and crystal stacked inside one another like Russian dolls! Inside was a small piece of a clay bowl believed to belong to the Buddha himself, showing how religious sanctity and international commerce went hand in hand along this coastal highway.
The Western Connection
Whether it was a river raft gliding down the Narmada, a salt caravan picking its way through the Aravalli passes, or a line of loaded bullocks descending the rock-cut steps of Naneghat, all western capillary routes served in converting the indigenous products into gold.
The Western Sector proves that ancient India's trade infrastructure was an interconnected web where rivers, mountain passes, monasteries, and royal tollbooths functioned together as a unified machine.
Note- This post is Part 2 of a 4-part exploration into the capillary roads of Ancient India. If you haven't already, check out Part 1: The Eastern Sea-Gates to see how the eastern coast connected the Gangetic plains to Southeast Asia and China!
Essential Bibliography
For readers looking to dive deeper into the ancient western trade networks, regional geography, and primary accounts, these works provide an excellent foundation:
Casson, Lionel (Trans.). (1989). The Periplus Maris Erythraean Seas: Text with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary. Princeton University Press. (The essential primary source for 1st-century CE maritime trade at Bharuch, Sopara, and Kalyan).
Beal, Samuel (Trans.). (1884). Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang (Xuanzang). London: Trübner & Co. (Contains the accounts of 7th-century CE Bairat/Po-li-ye-to and western regional kingdoms).
Dehejia, Vidya. (1972). Early Buddhist Rock Temples: A Chronological Study. Cornell University Press. (In-depth analysis of the Western Ghat cave monasteries like Karla, Bhaja, and Kanheri as commercial and religious hubs).
Sahni, Daya Ram. (1936). Archaeological Remains and Excavations at Bairat. Department of Archaeology, Jaipur State. (The original excavation report uncovering the Mauryan shrine and Greek silver coin hoard).
Gurukkal, Rajan. (2016). Rethinking Classical Indo-Roman Trade: Political Economy of Eastern Mediterranean Exchange. Oxford University Press. (Modern scholarly examination of trade flows, luxury goods, and coin circulation along western routes).
Chakrabarti, Dilip K. (2005). The Ancient Routes of the Deccan: Interregional Highways and Long Distance Trade. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. (Detailed historical geography mapping the passes connecting Paithan, Tagara, and the Konkan coast).
