Buddhism, Ashoka, and Benevolent Rule for Society

Ashoka the Great (r. 268–232 BCE), the third emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, is renowned for his transformative rule, which shifted from military expansion to a governance model emphasising welfare, justice, and moral righteousness. His administration, deeply influenced by his conversion to Buddhism, set a precedent for benevolent governance that prioritised social welfare, religious tolerance, and ethical governance. 

This paper explores Ashoka's administrative policies and governance, emphasising their lasting impact on Indian polity and society.

Ashoka in chariot. Sanchi relief first century BCE-first century CE (courtesy Wikipedia)

Ashoka stands out as one of history’s most remarkable rulers. His governance was rooted in ethical administration, social welfare, and religious tolerance. His policies, based on Buddhist Dhamma or moral righteousness, emphasised justice, non-violence, and the welfare of all beings.

 

Centuries later, Buddhist travellers documented Ashoka’s enduring influence, complementing his inscriptions as valuable resources for understanding his rule. This paper also examines his legacy, highlighting how his ethical and welfare-oriented leadership model continues to inspire contemporary governance.

 

Chandashoka to Dhammashoka

Ashoka inherited a vast empire, yet, like many rulers of his time, he sought to expand his domain further through aggressive military conquests. His ascension to the throne was marked by aggressive campaigns and the elimination of rivals, earning him a reputation as a fierce ruler or Chandashoka.

 

During his youth as the governor of the Avanti province, he met Devi, the daughter of Deva Shreshthi, a Shakyan merchant of Vedisa (present-day Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh). She and Ashoka fell in love, and he married her. Their union produced a son, Mahendra, and a daughter, Sanghamitra, who would later play a crucial role in spreading Buddhism to Sri Lanka. It is likely that Ashoka first became acquainted with Buddhist principles through Devi’s influence.

 

Following Bindusara’s death, Ashoka rushed to Pataliputra, where he eliminated his rivals and ascended the throne of the Magadha Empire. As Magadhan king, yet to be crowned, he maintained contact with Buddhist monks and Sangha, seeking their advice and guidance. Despite this, his imperial ambitions remained undeterred.

 

In contrast, Devi neither sought the position of chief royal queen nor asked for her son Mahendra to be made crown prince. Devi adhered to Buddhist teachings, commissioned a Vihara, and persistently worked for Buddhism. She has, however, been ignored in history books.

 

Ashoka mounted a massive attack on the kingdom of Kalinga in 261 BCE. He emerged victorious, but the scale of human suffering left a deep and lasting impact on him. This forced him into profound introspection, likely prompting him to recall the Buddhist teachings he had encountered through Devi and the Buddhist monks. This moment of reckoning led him to embrace Buddhism.

 

He regretted the war in his own words in Rock Edict XIII:

“Beloved-of-the-Gods felt remorse, for, when an independent country is conquered, the slaughter, death, and deportation of the people is extremely grievous to the Beloved-of-the-Gods and weighs heavily on his mind."

The renunciation of violence transformed Chandashoka, the fierce ruler, into Dhammashoka, or the righteous ruler. He now championed Dhamma-Vijaya - victory through righteousness rather than brutal military conquest. This remarkable shift remains one of the most defining aspects of Ashoka’s legacy.

Benevolent Governance

The Maurya empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya in c. 332 BCE with the help of his advisor Chanakya (who is said to have written the Sanskrit treatise Arthashastra on the art of statecraft). Chandragupta likely followed rituals and procedures enumerated in the Shruti, Smriti and Dharmashastras including Arthashastra. The second Mauryan king, Bindusara (r. 297-272 BCE), likely continued in the same style of governance. In old age, Chandragupta Maurya became a Jain monk, King Bindusara a follower of the Ajivika sect, whereas young King Ashoka became a Buddhist. All three of them, however, respected all religions.

 After ascending the throne, Ashoka consolidated his position and then patiently and skilfully integrated Buddhist ideas into a broader governance framework. He tried to bring harmony and well-being across his diverse empire by persuading his subjects to follow Ahimsa (non-violence), Karuna (compassion), Dana (charity), and religious tolerance.  

He used various methods for the propagation of moral and ethical teachings, such as: inscribing his proclamations on rocks and pillars, sending Buddhist missionaries to places in and out of his kingdom, going on pilgrimage to Buddhist sites instead of hunting parties and appointing religious officials. 

The Third Buddhist Council

For the promotion of Buddhism both within and beyond his empire, he needed the support of a unified and cohesive Sangha, and therefore, he patronised and provided resources for the assembly of monks known as the Third Buddhist Council. The Council took place in c. 250 BCE in Pataliputra under the presidency of Mogalliputta Tissa. This Council not only strengthened Buddhism but also reinforced Ashoka’s role as a promoter of the faith.

Reforms carried out by Ashoka

The reforms carried out by Ashoka in governance can be broadly categorised into maintaining religious harmony, social welfare, infrastructure development, justice, and administration, each reflecting his vision of a compassionate and just society. These measures may also have been undertaken by earlier kings, but Ashoka did it with more zeal and on a much larger scale.

Religious Harmony: Ashoka’s edicts provide insights into his views on religions, though he himself followed Buddhism. For instance, Rock Edict XII states:

"Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart."

"Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart."

Similarly, Rock Edict VII emphasises mutual respect among religions:

"He who reveres his religion and disparages another man’s religion does great harm to his own. The sects of other religions all deserve reverence for one reason or another."

These statements reflect Ashoka’s vision of a harmonious society where diverse beliefs could coexist peacefully.

Social Welfare and Infrastructure: Ashoka’s reign marked a significant shift from traditional governance toward state-sponsored welfare initiatives. This made him one of the earliest rulers to institutionalise social welfare on such a large scale.

Ashoka makes no mention of Varnas in any of the edicts, thereby showcasing his egalitarian views. He even employed women Dhamma Mahamatras, which must have been a revolutionary idea at the time. He asked the people to keep away from superstitions and meaningless rituals. 

Healthcare Initiatives: Ashoka established hospitals not only for humans but also for animals also along the highways, reflecting his commitment to ahimsa (non-violence) and compassion. These hospitals dispensed treatments based on medicinal herbs and plants. The clinics were distributed across the empire to ensure easy accessibility. This initiative was one of the earliest examples of state-funded healthcare in history. He mentions in Pillar Edict V:

"Everywhere in my dominions, I have arranged for medical treatment for humans and animals.

"Everywhere in my dominions, I have arranged for medical treatment for humans and animals.

Food Security: Ashoka ordered the construction of reservoirs, canals, and wells to improve irrigation. These projects not only enhanced agricultural productivity but also mitigated the impact of droughts, ensuring the well-being of rural communities. Sudarshan Lake mentioned in the Junagarh inscription of King Rudradaman I (r. 130-150 CE) is a good example of water management in ancient times: Chandragupta Maurya created the Lake, Ashoka extended it, and Rudradaman repaired it.

Secure Highways with Rest Houses: Ashoka’s vast empire was connected by an extensive network of roads, which facilitated trade, communication, and cultural exchange. Along these roads, such as Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha, he planted trees to provide shade and fruits. He constructed rest houses (Dharmshalas) for travellers.

These facilities of shelter, food, and water reflected Ashoka’s concern for comfort and safety, as summarised in his Pillar Edict V:

“I have also had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals."

Animal Protection: Ashoka’s reverence for life extends to all living beings. He banned animal sacrifices in religious ceremonies and promoted the establishment of veterinary hospitals. He stopped going on hunting trips altogether and ordered restricted meat dishes on the royal table; that too was done away with eventually.

Pillar Edict V provides a list of birds, animals, and aquatic creatures that are not to be killed. This edict further mentions: “…husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures.”

Justice for All: Ashoka’s legal and administrative reforms were guided by the principles of compassion, fairness, and rehabilitation. Ashoka’s legal system emphasized rehabilitation rather than retribution. Ashoka’s commitment to justice is clearly expressed in his Pillar Edict IV:

"The king desires that justice should be administered with impartiality and mercy and that every case should be considered fairly.

"The king desires that justice should be administered with impartiality and mercy and that every case should be considered fairly.

He introduced reforms to reduce harsh punishments and encouraged fair treatment for all, including prisoners. He also allowed three days of grace period for convicts to settle their family affairs. Ashoka mentions in Pillar Edict V:    “...In the twenty-six years since my coronation prisoners have been given amnesty on twenty-five occasions.”

Views of Buddhist Travelers

Centuries after Ashoka’s reign, Chinese Buddhist travellers visited India and documented the enduring impact of Ashoka’s governance. Their accounts provide insights into how Ashoka’s policies and patronage of Buddhism shaped the socio-religious landscape of India.

Faxian (Fa-Hien) travelled to India during the 5th century CE, and his account highlights how Ashoka’s vision of a just and compassionate society was still working even centuries after his death.  Faxian noted that Ashoka’s highways, monasteries, stupas, and pillar edicts were still standing and revered by the local population. Faxian observed that the poor and vulnerable were cared for, reflecting the continued implementation of Ashoka’s policies.

Xuan Zang (Huene Tsang) visited India in the 7th century CE and noted that Ashoka’s policies had deeply influenced subsequent Indian rulers such as Harsha (r.606-647), who sought to emulate his model of ethical governance and patronage of Buddhism. He praised the continued operation of Ashoka’s charitable institutions, including hospitals and rest houses, which remained functional and accessible to the public.

Yijing (I-Tsing) travelled to India in the late 7th century CE and corroborated that Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism had played a pivotal role in its spread to Southeast Asia. He highlighted the missionary efforts sponsored by Ashoka and the cultural exchange facilitated by Ashoka’s policies, which had created a network of Buddhist communities across Asia.

Influence on Indian Polity: Ashoka’s principles of ethical governance, religious tolerance, and social welfare deeply influenced subsequent Indian rulers and the nation’s political ethos. His legacy can be seen in the policies and philosophies of later monarchs as well as in the foundational principles of modern India. Ashoka’s model of benevolent rule inspired several Indian rulers who sought to emulate his ideals. For instance, King Harsha (7th century CE), the ruler of the Vardhana Empire, promoted religious tolerance and welfare policies, mirroring Ashoka’s commitment to social harmony.

Influence on the Indian Constitution: The ideals of Ashoka’s governance are echoed in our Constitution, which enshrines principles such as secularism, social justice, and public welfare. The emphasis on equality, nonviolence, and the protection of the marginalised can be traced back to Ashoka’s Dhamma.

The Lion Capital of Ashoka, originally part of the Sarnath Pillar, was adopted as India’s national emblem in 1950. The emblem, featuring four Asiatic lions standing back-to-back, symbolizes strength, courage, and unity, reflecting Ashoka’s enduring legacy as a unifying and ethical leader.

Ashoka’s missionaries and diplomatic initiatives played a pivotal role in introducing Buddhism to South Asia. He sent his son, Mahinda, and daughter, Sanghamitta, to Sri Lanka, where they successfully established Buddhism as the dominant faith. His diplomatic envoys to regions like Central Asia and the Hellenistic world facilitated cultural and religious exchanges, laying the groundwork for Buddhism’s global reach. Ashoka’s name is well known and respected in Buddhist countries.

The following examples may illustrate the influence of Buddhism and Ashokan governance:

i. The five kings of Sri Lanka prohibited the killing of animals,

ii. In fifth-century China, the Buddhist Emperor Lian-u-Thi went and lived in a monastery with monks,

iii. In Myanmar, Ashoka’s example has been invoked by many kings. Prime Minister U Nu had set up many small stupas.

iv. Khmer (Cambodian) King Jayavarman VII (r.1181-1220) engaged in the building of numerous Buddhist temples, hospitals, and rest houses (as mentioned in Britannica). One of his sons, Tamalinda Maha Thera, went to Burma and became a Bhikkhu (as mentioned in combodianview.com but could not be found elsewhere).

v. A temple of Ashoka was established by Buddhist monk Huida in c. 282 in Ningbo, Zhejiang, China, under the Western Jin Dynasty (c. 265-317), which is still flourishing.

Conclusion

Ashoka stands as one of history’s most transformative rulers, whose reign marked a profound shift from aggressive military conquest to ethical governance. Guided by the principles of Buddhism, Ashoka redefined governance and established hospitals, irrigation systems, and the abolition of hunting. His emphasis on infrastructure, justice, fairness, and Dhamma vision demonstrated his commitment to creating a just and equitable society.

Centuries later, the accounts of Chinese Buddhist travellers endorse the impact of his rule. Ashoka’s missionaries and diplomatic efforts influenced many other kings. In conclusion, the story of Ashoka is an inspiration for humanity wishing for a better future.

References

1. Bhargava, R. (2023). "Ashoka's Dhamma as a Project of Expansive Moral Hegemony." Bridging Two Worlds.
2. Bhatta, C.P. (2000). "Leadership Values: Insights from Ashoka's Inscriptions." Journal of Human Values.
3. Strong, J.S. (1989). The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Ashokavadana.
4. Lahiri, N. (2015). Ashoka in Ancient India.
5. Smith, V.A. (1920). Asoka, the Buddhist Emperor of India.
6. Walpola Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon: The Anuradhapura Period, Colombo, 1956 p 5 and 73)
7. E. Sarkisyan, Buddhist Backgrounds of the Burmese Revolution, The Hague, 1965, pp. 33, 66, 93, 97)

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Speaking at the Conference

    

Listening at the Conference

This article is a modified version of paper presented in an International Conference on 'Exploring Buddhism: History, Culture and Archaeology' on 25th - 26th March 2025 as part of research work. The Conference was organised by Department of History, Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut, U.P., India. 

A Note on the Third Buddhist Council

 

The Third Buddhist Council is a landmark historical event. It took place in the year 250 BCE at Ashokarama in Pataliputra (present day Patna in Bihar). Ashokarama was specially commissioned by Emperor Ashoka for the purpose of gathering of Buddhist monks. The Council was held after about 236 years of passing away of Buddha. Emperor Ashoka was the royal patron and provided for all the necessary resources for holding the council. Venerable Mogalliputta Tissa presided over the proceedings of the council.

Background

Ashoka after ascending the throne, started making lavish donations to all religious establishments of the time.    
Sri Lankan chronical Dipavamsa mentions in Chapter VII (translated by Herman Oldenberg), that in one day Ashoka expended four lacs thus- one in honour of Cetiyas, another for preaching the Dhamma, one for the requirement of the sick and one to Sangha.
The chronical further mentions the effect of such donations:
‘Infidels, sixty thousand in numbers, seeing this gain and these great honours, furtively attached themselves (to the Sangha)’.
Joining of imposters and unsocial elements was resented by real monks and they did not participate in Uposatha ceremonies for years.
Ashoka deputed his minister to visit and set the ceremony process in order. The minister asked the (real) monks to join the ceremony. They refused to do so because of imposters. The overzealous minister ended up by beheading real monks instead. Ashoka called for a meeting with senior monk Mogalliputta Tissa for finding ways to purge the Sangha.

The Council and its outcome

The meeting was held in 17^th year of Ashokan reign. Considering his ascension to the throne around c. 268 BCE, Ashoka may have been in his late 40s. He was mature enough to understand and dedicate himself to Buddhist teachings.
King Ashoka with the help of Mogalliputta Tissa, expelled thousands of imposters and fake monks after identification. A thousand monks fully versed in Tripitaka were picked up for the council which lasted for nine months.
Sanctity and discipline were restored in Sangha.
The 8th century Buddhist pilgrim I-Tsing narrates a parable about Ashoka and the Sangha( in his book A record of the Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and Malay Archipelago, translated by Takasuku J. published in 1896 by Oxford University  press). According to this story, king Bimbisara once saw in a dream 18 fragments of a cloth and a gold stick. Frightened Bimbisara rushed to seek clarification from Buddha about this dream. Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools more than a hundred years later. Buddha said:  O king, you need not be afraid!
Even if partially, the third council endorses the parable!
(I-Tsing, A record of the Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and Malay Archipelago, Trans by Takasuku J. 1896 Oxford).
Tissa compiled a book Kathavatthu which clarified queries of the opponents and resolved many disputes. The doctrinal clarifications in Kathavatthu convincingly refuted heretical views and reaffirmed orthodoxy. Therefore, it became an important part of Abhidhamma Pitaka.
The council helped in unifying Sangha and in strengthening discipline. This also helped in future growth of Buddhism in steady and uniform fashion.

Buddhist Missionaries 

Another important decision was to start missionary activity on a large scale which had full support of King Ashoka. Nine missionary groups were formed and sent to various regions within and outside of Ashokan empire. 
Notable group amongst the nine group was headed by Ashoka’s son Mahindra which went to Sri Lanka. The work done by Mahindra and his sister Sanghamitta, who joined him later, is still visible in Sri Lanka.
Based on impact of various missionary groups ranking has been done as under. Of course a disclaimer here would be in order. 

Disclaimer

This ranking and assessment of Emperor Ashoka's missions is presented solely as an academic exercise for the purpose of comparative historical analysis. It is based on interpretations of historical records concerning the spread, establishment, and long-term presence of Buddhism in different regions. The rankings reflect subjective judgments on perceived historical impact and do not imply any inherent superiority or inferiority of the missionaries themselves, their dedication, or the spiritual value of their work. This analysis casts no aspersion whatsoever on any member of these revered missionary groups.

Ranked Missions of Emperor Ashoka

1. Mahinda - Tamraparni (Sri Lanka):

Impact: Mahinda's mission achieved profound success, leading directly to King Devanampiya Tissa's conversion and the establishment of Buddhism as the state religion.
Long-Term Influence: Sri Lanka became, and remains, one of the most vital centres of Theravada Buddhism globally. It is renowned for preserving the Pali Canon and sustaining an unbroken, strong monastic tradition (the Sangha) for over two millennia.
Cultural Significance: Buddhism is inextricably woven into the fabric of Sri Lankan identity. It profoundly shapes the island's culture, art, social structures, political landscape, and spiritual life.

2. Sona & Uttara - Suvarnabhumi (Lower Myanmar & Thailand):

Impact: Their mission effectively spread Theravada Buddhism across significant parts of Southeast Asia. Buddhism became the dominant faith in Myanmar and Thailand, fundamentally influencing local cultures and societal norms.

Long-Term Influence: Both Myanmar and Thailand persist as Theravada Buddhist strongholds. The religion is deeply embedded in their national identities, with Buddhist institutions playing central roles in society and governance.
Cultural Significance: These regions produced magnificent Buddhist architecture (e.g., Bagan in Myanmar) and have nurtured vibrant monastic traditions that continue to profoundly influence all aspects of life, from rural villages to urban centres.

3. Mahadhammarakhita - Maharashtra (West India)

Impact: This mission catalysed a flourishing period for Buddhism in Maharashtra, evidenced by the creation of numerous, spectacular rock-cut monasteries and stupas.

Long-Term Influence: Although Buddhism significantly declined in the region later, the enduring physical legacy of sites like the Ajanta and Ellora caves powerfully attests to the initial mission's success and the sophistication of Buddhist culture it fostered. The artistic styles developed here were highly influential.
Cultural Significance: The Ajanta and Ellora caves are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, representing pinnacle achievements in Buddhist art and architecture, attracting global admiration and study.

4. Majjhima - Himvanta (Himalayan Regions: Nepal, Bhutan,

 Sikkim)

Impact: Majjhima's mission successfully introduced and spread Buddhism, particularly Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, into the Himalayan regions, establishing vital spiritual centres.

Long-Term Influence: Nepal and Bhutan remain crucial centres for Vajrayana Buddhism. Buddhism is the state religion in Bhutan. Nepal played a pivotal role as a conduit for transmitting Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet.
Cultural Significance: These regions are renowned for their rich Buddhist heritage, including iconic monasteries, stupas (like Boudhanath in Nepal), and unique practices. They exhibit a distinctive syncretic blend of Mahayana, Vajrayana, and indigenous traditions.

5. Rakkhita - Vanavasi (Karnataka, South India)

Impact: Rakkhita's mission spread Buddhism to parts of southern India (like Uttara Kannada), where it initially coexisted with Jainism and Hinduism. However, it faced strong competition and eventually waned.
Long-Term Influence: The direct influence of Buddhism as a major religion in this specific region declined significantly over the centuries, overshadowed by the resurgence of other faiths.
Cultural Significance: While Buddhism did not endure as a dominant religion here, its early impact is visible in archaeological remains, such as cave temples and inscriptions. It contributed to the region's artistic development, particularly in rock-cut architecture.

6. Majjhantika (Madhyantika) - Kashmir & Gandhara (Afghanistan,

 Pakistan)

Impact: Majjhantika's mission spread Buddhism robustly to the northwest, especially flourishing in Gandhara. The region became a major hub for Mahayana Buddhism and pioneered distinctive Greco-Buddhist artistic styles.

Long-Term Influence: Gandhara played a critical role as a crossroads, facilitating the transmission of Mahayana Buddhism (and its art) along the Silk Road into Central Asia and China. However, Buddhism's prominence drastically declined in the region following Islamic conquests.
Cultural Significance: The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara revolutionized the depiction of the Buddha and had a profound influence on Buddhist art across Asia. It stands as a major cultural achievement and conduit for transmission.

7. Dhammarakhita (Yonadhammarakhita) - Apparantika (Gujarat and Sindh)

Impact: Dhammarakhita mission established Buddhism in western India (Gujarat and Sindh), adding to the region's religious diversity. However, its presence remained relatively localized and vulnerable.
Long-Term Influence: Buddhist influence in this region diminished considerably, particularly after the advent of Islam. Traces of its past presence are now largely archaeological.
Cultural Significance: The early Buddhist communities contributed to the cultural landscape, though this impact lessened over time. Remnants of stupas and monasteries serve as historical witnesses.

8. Maharakkhita - Yona (Greek Territories - Bactria/Afghanistan)

Impact: Maharakkhita's mission introduced Buddhism to Hellenistic regions, fostering a unique interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures. This led to the development of Greco-Buddhist art and facilitated Buddhism's spread in Central Asia.
Long-Term Influence: Sustained Buddhist influence in these areas waned significantly, primarily due to the later spread of Islam. The distinct Greco-Buddhist cultural synthesis did not survive as a living tradition in the region.
Cultural Significance: The Greco-Buddhist fusion produced iconic artistic representations of the Buddha (e.g., in human form with Hellenistic features) that were widely adopted and influenced Buddhist art throughout Asia, leaving an enduring artistic legacy.

9. Mahadeva - Mahishamaṇḍala (Mysore, Karnataka)

Impact: Mahadeva's mission introduced Buddhism to this part of South India. However, it encountered strong and established competition from Jainism and Hinduism from the outset.

Long-Term Influence: While achieving some early presence, Buddhism's influence in the Mahishamaṇḍala region faded over time, unable to compete with the rising dominance of Jainism and Hinduism.
Cultural Significance: Evidence of Buddhism in this region is now primarily archaeological. Scattered sites and remnants bear witness to the early, but ultimately limited, spread of Buddhism in this area of South India.

Records and Memorials of Missions

King Ashoka did keep records of the Buddhist missionaries he dispatched, especially during and after the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). Ashoka's inscriptions provide significant information about his efforts to spread Buddhism both within and outside India. While specific, detailed records of each missionary’s work may not survive, Mahinda and Sanghamitta missions to Sri Lanka are among the most successful and documented, as they were Ashoka’s own son and daughter. 


The Rock and Pillar inscriptions do not list every missionary activities individually but emphasize his role in promoting Buddhism across his empire and neighbouring regions. For example Rock Edict XIII famously mentions his efforts to send emissaries to regions as far as Greece, Egypt, and Sri Lanka. However, detailed accounts of specific missionary work are sparse.

Stupas were commonly built to honour monks and spiritual leaders, and in many cases, missionaries as well. Some stupas may have been erected in regions where the missionaries were active. For example, in Sri Lanka, there are several monuments and stupas related to Mahindra's and Sanghamitta missionary work:
Thuparama Stupa: This is believed to be the first stupa built in Sri Lanka after Mahinda's arrival. It is said to contain a relic of the Buddha (his collarbone), brought by Mahinda. 
Mihintale: The site where Mahinda first met King Devanampiya Tissa and introduced Buddhism to the island. Mihintale is considered the "cradle of Buddhism" in Sri Lanka, and it features numerous stupas and caves where Mahinda and his followers resided. 
Anuradhapura: This ancient capital of Sri Lanka became a significant Buddhist centre with monuments honouring both Mahinda and Sanghamitta.

In many other regions where Buddhist missionaries were active (e.g., Karnataka, Gujarat, Kashmir), there is evidence of stupas, monasteries, and other Buddhist structures, but it is not always clear whether these were built specifically to honour the missionaries themselves. Often, stupas were constructed for the purpose of housing relics of the Buddha or significant senior monks rather than as memorials to specific individuals of the missionaries.

Gandhara (in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan), where Majjhantika led the mission, became a major centre for Greco-Buddhist culture. Stupas and monastic sites, such as in Taxila and Takht-i-Bahi,  were not explicitly built as memorials to missionary monks. They however symbolize the flourishing of Buddhism in the region, which missionaries like Majjhantika helped foster.

In Maharashtra, the Ajanta, Ellora and Karla caves stand as significant remnants of Buddhist monastic life, likely owing to the influence of Mahadhammarakhita's mission. These monumental rock-cut caves, which date from the 2nd century BCE onwards, were used by monks and might also serve as tributes to the missionaries’ work.

Meeting of the monks in progress

1. 
   

चलो चलें घूमने

                Once a year, go somewhere you’ve never been before. – The Dalai Lama

1. घुमक्कड़ी का अपना ही आनंद है! नए लोगों से मिलना, नए नज़ारे देखना, नया खानपान चखना और जीने के नए अंदाज़ देखना – ये सब अनूठे अनुभव देते हैं। इन्हीं अनुभवों से पता चलता है कि इस दुनिया में कितनी विविधता और सुंदरता बिखरी पड़ी है। अजंता एलोरा की गुफाएं, मदुरै के मंदिर, आसाम के चाय बागान, केदारनाथ का मंदिर वगैरह किताबों में पढ़ने के बजाए खुद जाकर देखने में ज्यादा आनंद आता है। अगर खुद ना देखा हो तो इनकी खूबसूरती पता ही नहीं चलती।

2. घूमना आसान है? या मुश्किल है? सतही तौर पर तो लगता है, गाड़ी स्टार्ट की और चल पड़े! पर असल में थोड़ा मुश्किल भी है, क्योंकि पेट्रोल, होटल और खाने का खर्चा तो चाहिए ही और छुट्टी भी चाहिए। घूमने का कोई एक आसान फॉर्मूला नहीं है। ज़रूरत है तो बस थोड़े से शौक, थोड़े से जोश, थोड़ी सी निडरता और थोड़े से रोकड़े की! और हाँ खाने से कम लगाव हो तो अच्छा है क्यूंकि पसंद का खाना मिले या ना मिले। और अगर हमसफ़र है, तो वह भी वैसा ही होना चाहिए, वरना मज़ा किरकिरा हो सकता है।

3. हमारा घूमना ज्यादातर अपनी फटफटिया और कार से ही होता रहा है, चाहे केदारनाथ जाना हो या कन्याकुमारी। अपनी गाड़ी में यात्रा करने का मज़ा ही कुछ और है। पहले मोटरसाइकिल से सफ़र करते थे, अब कार से। अक्सर लोग पूछते हैं: "कार से इतनी दूर कैसे जाते हो? होटल ठीक मिल जाता है? खाना कैसा रहता है? थकान नहीं होती? नींद आ जाती है? गाड़ी पंचर हो जाए या खराबी आ जाए तो? पहाड़ों पर चलाने में दिक्कत नहीं होती?" हमारा जवाब हमेशा एक ही होता है: अरे यार, पहले घर से निकलो तो सही, फिर सवाल पूछना! 

4. मेरा जन्म 1951 में महाराष्ट्र के देवलाली केंट में हुआ। पिताजी की नौकरी के कारण हर तीसरे चौथे साल ट्रांसफर होते रहे और हम भी नए-नए शहरों में पहुँचते रहे – देवलाली से अहमदनगर, नाशिक, मुंबई, जबलपुर, लखनऊ, कानपुर और मेरठ। मेरी नौकरी दिल्ली में लगी, जिसकी वजह से आगरा, सिलचर, तेजपुर, रुड़की और मुज़फ्फरनगर जैसे शहरों में पोस्टिंग रही। इस तरह घूमना रुक रुक कर पर फिर भी लगातार चलता रहा। कह सकते हैं, यात्रा करना तो मेरी जन्म घुट्टी में शामिल है! 😍

5. 2011 में पेंशन मिलनी शुरू हुई, तो सैर-सपाटे में और तेजी आ गई। समय भी खूब था, किसी से छुट्टी मांगने की ज़रूरत नहीं थी, और जेब में पैसे भी थे। तो फिर क्या था – चलो चले! कभी गुजरात की 15 दिन की सैर, तो कभी राजस्थान की 17 दिन की यात्रा। इन सभी यात्राओं में गाड़ी मैं चलाता हूँ और गायत्री जीपीएस संभालती हैं। वह बताती रहती हैं: "अब फलाना किला आने वाला है, वह मंदिर आ रहा है" इत्यादि। हम मूल रूप से यात्री ज़्यादा हैं, पर्यटक कम। यानी कोई टारगेट फिक्स करके नहीं चलते। अगर कोई जगह पसंद आ जाए, तो दो-एक दिन ज़्यादा रुक जाते हैं। कोई तयशुदा प्रोग्राम या रूट नहीं होता; हमेशा बदलाव की गुंजाइश रखकर चलते हैं। जैसे, बैंगलोर जाना हो तो अनुमानित 25 से 35 दिन का समय लेते हैं और रूट भी बदलते रहते हैं ताकि नई-नई जगहें देख सकें।

6. लगभग 1995 तक सैर-सपाटे के लिए मोटरसाइकिल, बसें, ट्रेन या कभी-कभार सरकारी खर्चे पर हवाई जहाज़ का इस्तेमाल होता था। पहली मोटरसाइकिल थी राजदूत, लेकिन उसकी कोई तस्वीर अब नहीं है (शायद खींची भी नहीं गई थी)। उस राजदूत पर दिल्ली-मेरठ के आसपास ही छोटी-मोटी यात्राएँ हुईं। फिर आई 'बुलेट 350cc'। उस पर हरिद्वार, ऋषिकेश, लैंसडाउन, जयपुर और पुष्कर जैसी लंबी यात्राएँ कीं। जब असम ट्रांसफर हुआ, तो बुलेट को ट्रेन में डालकर वहाँ ले गया। सिलचर और बाद में तेजपुर की पोस्टिंग में भी वह खूब दौड़ाई।

7. फिर मारुति 800 आ गई, जिससे यात्रा का दायरा और आराम दोनों बढ़ गया। "हम दो और हमारे दो" (बच्चे) के लिए भी पर्याप्त जगह थी। दिल्ली से चंडीगढ़, मसूरी, आगरा, पौड़ी गढ़वाल, गुप्तकाशी जैसे सफ़र आरामदेह हो गए और समय भी कम लगने लगा। हालाँकि, पहली पहाड़ी यात्रा में एक दिक्कत हुई - ऊंचाई पर जाते हुए मोड़ काटने का अभ्यास नहीं था। एक बार हैंडब्रेक हटाए बिना गाड़ी चला दी। गाड़ी की स्पीड नहीं बढ़ रही थी और ब्रेक पैड से धुआँ निकलने लगा। करीब पाँच-छह किलोमीटर बाद समझ आया कि ब्रेक लगी हुई है!

8. मारुति 800cc  के बाद एस्टीम 1000 cc  ली। अब एयर कंडीशनिंग का मज़ा था, डिक्की बड़ी थी और स्पीड भी अच्छी थी, जिससे सफ़र और भी आरामदेह हो गया। इसी बीच चीफ मैनेजर बनने पर बैंक ने भी गाड़ी दे दी, तो एस्टीम अब बच्चों के काम आने लगी।

9. जून 2011 में मेरी रिटायरमेंट थी। गायत्री ने सोचा कि वह भी पेंशन ले लें, ताकि दोनों साथ में भारत दर्शन कर सकें। दोनों बेटे भी नौकरी करने लगे थे, इसलिए हम दोनों ने एक साथ ही रिटायरमेंट ले ली। हालाँकि, भारत दर्शन की तैयारी में हमने रिटायर होने से चार महीने पहले ही एक नई गाड़ी – रॉयल एनफील्ड क्लासिक 500 – खरीद ली थी। पुष्कर और लैंसडाउन की यात्राओं के बाद एहसास हुआ कि मोटरसाइकिल पर लंबा सफ़र, विशेषकर हमारी उम्र में, कमर तोड़ देता है, कंधे दुखने लगते हैं, धूल-मिट्टी कपड़े खराब कर देती है और सबसे बड़ी कोफ़्त तो लाल बत्ती पर इंतज़ार करते हुए होती है!

10. इसके बाद फोर्ड की ईकोस्पोर्ट डीज़ल ले ली। यह 1500cc की दमदार गाड़ी थी जो बिल्कुल नहीं थकती थी। पहाड़ी चढ़ाइयाँ भी आसानी से पार कर जाती थी। मेरठ-आगरा-लखनऊ जैसा सफर साढ़े सात घंटे में (एक घंटे के लंच ब्रेक के साथ) आराम से हो जाता था। अफ़सोस, दिल्ली सरकार के दस साल वाले नियम के चलते इस ईकोस्पोर्ट को बेचना पड़ा। इस नियम से न तो दिल्ली का प्रदूषण घटा और न ही हमें गाड़ी बेचने का कोई फायदा हुआ।

11. अब हमारी चौथी गाड़ी है टाटा पंच। इस पर हम मेरठ-बैंगलोर-मेरठ की यात्रा कर चुके हैं। यह थोड़ी नरम है (1200cc, तीन सिलेंडर), इसलिए इसे 100 किमी/घंटा से कम स्पीड पर ही चलाना ठीक लगता है। सर्विस के मामले में भी टाटा, मारुति और फोर्ड की तुलना में थोड़ा पीछे है।

12. सार यही कि यात्रा के लिए कोई बहुत धाँसू वाहन होना ज़रूरी नहीं है। पैदल, साइकिल, स्कूटर, कार, ट्रेन या हवाई जहाज़ – कोई भी साधन इस्तेमाल किया जा सकता है। मेरा सबसे लंबा साइकिल सफ़र 1974 में दिल्ली से मेरठ तक हुआ था – सुबह पाँच बजे निकलकर दोपहर एक बजे पहुँचा। यह 70 किलोमीटर की वह पहली और आखिरी साइकिल यात्रा थी; दोबारा कभी इतनी लंबी साइकिल यात्रा की हिम्मत नहीं जुटा पाया। इन छोटी - बड़ी यात्राओं की फोटो ब्लॉग में भी प्रकाशित कर दी थी। यहाँ नई पुरानी फोटो का मिक्स एक बार फिर प्रस्तुत हैं। भविष्य में लम्बी यात्राऐं कैसे होंगी यह तो समय ही बताएगा पर गाड़ी तो चलती रहनी चाहिए।   

13. बारिशें थमे तो फिर से निकलते हैं ! 😎

  

1. Tandem Duo या 'डबल' साइकिल का अलग ही अंदाज़ और मज़ा है। पर मज़ेदार होने के बावजूद सड़कों पर कम ही दिखाई पड़ती है।   

2. ये पहली डबल साइकिल थी जो 2014 में ली थी।  इस पर सवारी कर रहे हैं विजय और स्वाति भट्ट 

  

3. फोर्ड की इस ईको स्पोर्ट में पहाड़, मैदान और रेगिस्तान सब घूम लिए 

4. राह मिलेगी जरूर पहले भटक तो सही, घर से निकल कर किसी मोड़ पर अटक तो सही ! - अज्ञात शायर का उम्दा शेर  

5. थार रेगिस्तान की पीली रेत। जैसलमेर से तनोट मंदिर जाते हुए  

6. केन घड़ियाल अभ्यारण्य, मध्य प्रदेश। बेटे की ट्रांसफर गुडगाँव से बैंगलोर हो गई तो इस गाड़ी को दिल्ली से बैंगलोर पहुँचाना था। हमारे लिए यह सुनहरा मौका था और झट से कहा हम पहुंचा देंगे! इस फोर्ड ईको स्पोर्ट को हम ग्वालियर, भोपाल, नागपुर, हैदराबाद के रास्ते बैंगलोर सिर्फ 22 दिन में ले गए 
  

7. हौसला रखो और चलते रहो !

8. बोरधरण, तहसील सेलू, जिला वर्धा, महाराष्ट्र। पीछे बोर नदी पर बने बाँध का जलाशय है। सुन्दर पिकनिक स्पॉट   

9. मसूरी की ओर जाती हमारी पहली कार मारुती 800 और यश. बेचने से पहले लगभग एक लाख बीस हजार किमी चलाई  

10. कारवाड़, कर्णाटक के नज़दीक जलसेना का लड़ाकू जहाज जिसे संग्रहालय बना दिया गया है। बेटे ने बैंगलोर से दिल्ली शिफ्ट करना था तो उसने सुझाव दिया की आप मारुती चला कर ले जाना चाहो तो ले जाओ। इस मारुती को ले कर हम बैंगलोर से कन्याकुमारी, थिरुअनंतपुरम, कालीकट, मैंगलोर, गोवा वगैरा घूमते होते हुए एक महीने में दिल्ली लाए      

 11. स्वतंत्र और अश्वनी भसीन के साथ कसौली, चैल, सुबाथू, डगशई शिमला हिल्स की सैर 

12. टेहरी बाँध के जलाशय के पास 

13. चलो दिल्ली ! बैंगलोर से मारुती में प्रस्थान करने से पहले की फोटो 2014 

14. कालीकट का समंदरी किनारा 

15. राजस्थान में प्रवेश 

16. पांडिचेरी को बाय बाय 

17. महाबलीपुरम की ओर 

18. एस्टीम में हमारी गुजरात यात्रा 

19. एस्टीम ले कर गुप्तकाशी, उत्तराखंड की ओर 

   

20. सही फ़रमाया - Life is a ride! 

21. मंज़िल दूर नहीं 

 

22. मुकुल और शाही सवारी, लेह से लगभग 70 किमी पहले 

23. New Royal Enfield Classic 500 purchased before retirement in 2010 in Delhi. Great bike but a bit heavier almost 200 kg. Had few rides to Rishikesh, Lansdowne, Jaipur & Pushkar. Old bones creaked on long rides so parted company in 2014.  

24. This Standard Bullet 350 was purchased in 1980 for 16k. On transfer from Delhi to Silchar, Assam, it was also loaded on train. Had several excursions there in Assam. Seen here on Kalia Bhomra Bridge on river Brahmaputra in Tezpur Assam in 1986. Quality of this bike was an issue. Wires will break, leakage of oil, bulbs conked off frequently but these things did not matter when you heard the thumping sound Dhak Dhak! . Brought back to Delhi in 1989 and in 1990 sold off for 10k 

  

25. हर्ष, मुकुल ते नील दी गड्डी। 2010 model Classic 500. पहले हर्ष ने चलाई, अब मुकुल चला रहा है और उम्मीद है कि नील भी इसे चलाएगा 😎 दादा ले और पोता बरते ! 

26. A good traveller has no fixed plans, and is not intent on arriving. – Lao Tzu
 

27. इधर जाऊं या उधर जाऊं ? बड़ी मुश्किल में हूँ मैं किधर जाऊं ?

28. The world is a book, and those who do not travel read only one page –Saint Augustine 

29. Navigator Gayatri . No road is long with good company. 

30. बैंगलोर से विजयवाड़ा जाते हुए लंच ब्रेक 

31. Travelling – it leaves you speechless, then turns you into a storyteller. – Ibn Battuta. With Abhishek in May 2023 in Meerut